@article{d331d59efc3549ab90ceb4d571199797,
title = "DRD2 and DRD4 in relation to regular alcohol and cannabis use among adolescents: Does parenting modify the impact of genetic vulnerability? The TRAILS study",
abstract = "Aims: The aims of the present study were to determine the direct effect of DRD2 and DRD4, as well as their interaction with parenting (i.e. rejection, overprotection and emotional warmth), on the development of regular alcohol and cannabis use in 1192 Dutch adolescents from the general population. Methods: Information was obtained by self-report questionnaires. Perceived rejection, overprotection and emotional warmth were assessed at age 10-12. Regular alcohol and cannabis use were determined at age 15-18 and defined as the consumption of alcohol on 10 or more occasions in the past four weeks, and the use of cannabis on 4 or more occasions in the past four weeks. Models were adjusted for age, sex, parental alcohol or cannabis use, and externalizing behavior. Results: Carrying the A1 allele of the DRD2 TaqIA polymorphism, or the 7 repeat DRD4, was not directly related to regular alcohol or cannabis use. In addition, adolescent carriers of these genetic risk markers were not more susceptible to the influence of less optimal parenting. Main effects for parenting indicated that overprotection increased the risk of regular alcohol use, whereas the risk of cannabis use was enhanced by parental rejection and buffered by emotional warmth. Conclusions: Our findings do not support an association between DRD2/DRD4 and regular alcohol and cannabis use in adolescents. Given the substance-specific influences of rejection, overprotection and emotional warmth, these parenting factors might be promising candidates for prevention work.",
keywords = "Adolescence, Alcohol, Cannabis, DRD2, DRD4, Gene-environment interaction, Parenting",
author = "Creemers, {H. E.} and Z. Harakeh and Dick, {D. M.} and J. Meyers and Vollebergh, {W. A.M.} and J. Ormel and Verhulst, {F. C.} and Huizink, {A. C.}",
note = "Funding Information: This research is part of the TRacking Adolescents{\textquoteright} Individual Lives Survey (TRAILS). Participating centers of TRAILS include various departments of the University Medical Center and University of Groningen, the Erasmus University Medical Center Rotterdam, the University of Utrecht, the Radboud Medical Center Nijmegen, and the Parnassia Bavo group, all in the Netherlands. TRAILS has been financially supported by various grants from the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research NWO (Medical Research Council program grant GB-MW 940-38-011 ; ZonMW Brainpower grant 100-001-004 ; ZonMw Risk Behavior and Dependence grants 60-60600-98-018 and 60-60600-97-118 ; ZonMw Culture and Health grant 261-98-710 ; Social Sciences Council medium-sized investment grants GB-MaGW 480-01-006 and GB-MaGW 480-07-001 ; Social Sciences Council project grants GB-MaGW 457-03-018 , GB-MaGW 452-04-314 , and GB-MaGW 452-06-004 ; NWO large-sized investment grant 175.010.2003.005 ); the Sophia Foundation for Medical Research (projects 301 and 393), the Dutch Ministry of Justice (WODC) , the European Science Foundation (EuroSTRESS project FP-006), and the participating universities. We are grateful to all adolescents, their parents and teachers who participated in this research and to everyone who worked on this project and made it possible. The present analysis was also supported in part by the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) – Vidi scheme, Netherlands (452-06-004 to ACH). Funding Information: The writing of this paper was financially supported by ZonMW research grant 60-60600-98-018. The present analysis was also supported in part by the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) – Vidi scheme, Netherlands (452-06-004 to A.C. Huizink). ZonMW and NWO had no further role in the design of this study; in the collection, analysis and interpretation of data; in the writing of the report; or in the decision to submit the paper for publication. ",
year = "2011",
month = may,
day = "1",
doi = "10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.10.008",
language = "English (US)",
volume = "115",
pages = "35--42",
journal = "Drug and Alcohol Dependence",
issn = "0376-8716",
publisher = "Elsevier Ireland Ltd",
number = "1-2",
}