Inherent X-linked genetic variability and cellular mosaicism unique to females contribute to sex-related differences in the innate immune response

Zoltan Spolarics, Geber Peña, Yong Qin, Robert J. Donnelly, David H. Livingston

Research output: Contribution to journalArticlepeer-review

46 Scopus citations

Abstract

Females have a longer lifespan and better general health than males. Considerable number of studies also demonstrated that, after trauma and sepsis, females present better outcomes as compared to males indicating sex-related differences in the innate immune response. The current notion is that differences in the immuno-modulatory effects of sex hormones are the underlying causative mechanism. However, the field remains controversial and the exclusive role of sex hormones has been challenged. Here, we propose that polymorphic X-linked immune competent genes, which are abundant in the population are important players in sex-based immuno-modulation and play a key role in causing sex-related outcome differences following trauma or sepsis. We describe the differences in X chromosome (ChrX) regulation between males and females and its consequences in the context of common X-linked polymorphisms at the individual as well as population level. We also discuss the potential pathophysiological and immune-modulatory aspects of ChrX cellular mosaicism, which is unique to females and how this may contribute to sex-biased immune-modulation. The potential confounding effects of ChrX skewing of cell progenitors at the bone marrow is also presented together with aspects of acute trauma-induced de novo ChrX skewing at the periphery. In support of the hypothesis, novel observations indicating ChrX skewing in a female trauma cohort as well as case studies depicting the temporal relationship between trauma-induced cellular skewing and the clinical course are also described. Finally, we list and discuss a selected set of polymorphic X-linked genes, which are frequent in the population and have key regulatory or metabolic functions in the innate immune response and, therefore, are primary candidates for mediating sex-biased immune responses. We conclude that sex-related differences in a variety of disease processes including the innate inflammatory response to injury and infection may be related to the abundance of X-linked polymorphic immune-competent genes, differences in ChrX regulation, and inheritance patterns between the sexes and the presence of X-linked cellular mosaicism, which is unique to females.

Original languageEnglish (US)
Article number1455
JournalFrontiers in immunology
Volume8
Issue numberNOV
DOIs
StatePublished - Nov 13 2017

All Science Journal Classification (ASJC) codes

  • Immunology and Allergy
  • Immunology

Keywords

  • Cellular mosaicism
  • Infection
  • Injury
  • Sepsis
  • Sexual dimorphism
  • X chromosome inactivation
  • X chromosome skewing

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